Punctuation
Apostrophe
In words showing joint possession or in compound (hyphenated) words, only the last word takes the possessive form.
secretary-treasurer's report;
Jones and Company's product;
John and Becky's child
When two or more persons possess something individually, each of their names takes the possessive form.
the buyer's and the seller's signatures;
the dean's and the professors' offices
Use an apostrophe to denote a contraction or omission of letters.
it is becomes it's;
1978 becomes (the Class of) '78
Use the apostrophe to form the plural of lower-case letters and symbols. It’s not necessary for capital letters and numbers, including years.
p's and q's; but As and Bs (grades);
IOUs; during the 1990s
Articles and Chapters
Use quotation marks.
"In the Warmth of the Dome."
Double Spaces
Avoid double spaces after the period.
En dash
Use an en dash (–), when possible, or hyphen (-) for inclusive page references (unless preceded by the word from, in which case to must be used).
pp. 1–21; but: from page 1 to 21
Use an en dash, when possible, or hyphen in dates extending over two successive calendar years. Do not use spaces on either side of the en dash.
1998–99; 2002–04, but: 1999–2000
Use an en dash between inclusive numbers.
3–11; 85–6; 113–6, 100–5, 1,002–8; 321–5; 455–501; note the 0 remains in years: 1905–06 and for clarity in page numbers (above).
Use an en dash to link cities to universities with more than one campus.
University of Wisconsin–Madison;
University of Minnesota–Duluth
Em dash
Use an em dash, also referred to as the dash, to precede a reference to an author following a direct quotation. Do not use spaces on either side of the em dash.
"I am simply a human being, more or less."—Saul Bellow, Herzog (1964)
Use em dashes to set off clauses that are logically and structurally independent, also for amplifying or explaining.
Tonight's program—a program that has won national acclaim—is underwritten…
He had a plan to win the game—a plan he hoped would work.
Hyphen
Hyphenated compounds in titles—
Capitalize only the first element in hyphenated titles of works unless the second element is a proper noun or adjective.
Death-defying Feats by Nineteenth-century Tightrope Walkers
An All-American Girl: How a Non-English-speaking Immigrant Made Good
Do not capitalize second element if modifying the first element or both elements constitute a single word.
twentieth-century literature;
English-speaking people;
first-year student
When used as an adjective in a title, the number following the hyphen is lowercase.
Twenty-third Conference on Sludge;
Twenty-first Century Literature
Note—Although modern practice tends toward deleting traditional hyphens (reestablish, toolmaker), they should be retained where they are used in the original title. Only capitalization and punctuation may be altered in a title.
Do not hyphenate vice president.
Hyphenate adjectival phrases formed of two or more words preceding the nouns modified where ambiguity might result.
- well-known woman; first-class act;
- joint-stock company;
- matter-of-course attitude; solid-state circuit;
- land-use legislation;
- cross-cultural education;
- steady-state research; decision-making body
Use a hyphen when the meaning varies with the absence of a hyphen.
Re-cover and recover;
re-create and recreation, etc.
Hyphenate when the first vowel of the added word would suggest mispronunciation.
pro-ally; demi-equitant; ante-urban
Do not hyphenate adjectives formed of two proper names having their own fixed meaning.
Old Testament times; New York subways
Campuswide
No hyphen needed. University-wide is one of the few -wide compounds that needs a hyphen.
Database
No hyphen.
Decision-making
Hyphenate as an adjective. Open as a noun.
Similarly: critical-thinking pattern and cutting-edge design; but It required critical thinking and his design was cutting edge.
Fieldwork
One word, no hyphen.
Job Site
Two words.
-ly words, other adverb/adjective combinations
Do not hyphenate combinations of adverb and adjective or adverb and participle unless ambiguity would result.
highly developed areas;
the fallen tree blocked the road.
Non words
Compounds of non ordinarily do not require a hyphen, except when used with a proper noun. Consult Merriam-Webster's; if the compound does not appear there, use a hyphen.
non-civil engineering;
but: nondegree-seeking student;
nonmajor; noncredit
Online
No hyphen.
Prefixes
Do not hyphenate prefixes when joined to roots except in a combination with words beginning with their terminal vowel or sometimes when used with a w or a y.
Biweekly; coauthor; coeducation; cocurricular
preprofessional; prelegal;
but: postwar; coworker
When in doubt, consult Merriam-Webster's latest edition.
Problem-solving
Hyphenate as an adjective. Leave open as a noun.
Self- words
Hyphenate when self forms the first element of a compound.
self-conscious; self-denial
Semiconductor
Not hyphenated.
Serial Comma
Michigan Tech uses the serial comma, the second comma in this example:
The Huskies defeated Northern, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.